Over the past 20 years, study scientists have attempted to non-invasively portion mice and rat blood pressure (Bp) with varying degrees of success.
The ability to accurately and non-invasively portion the systolic and diastolic blood pressure, in increasing to the heart pulse rate and other blood flow parameters in rodents, is of great clinical value to the researcher.
Invasive Blood Pressure, Rat and Mouse Measurement
Piezoelectric Pressure Sensor
Direct blood pressure, an invasive surgical procedure, is the gold standard to assess the accuracy of non-invasive blood pressure (Nibp) technologies. Direct blood pressure should be obtained on the rodent's carotid artery when comparing to Nibp. "Validation in Awake Rats of a Tail Cuff method for Measuring Systolic Pressure", Bunag, R.D., Journal of Applied Physiology, Vol 34, Pgs 279-282, 1973.
Radiotelemetry, a extremely invasive surgical procedure, is a very dependable blood pressure technology and is also utilized to assess the accuracy of Nibp technologies. Telemetry involves the implantation of radio transmitters in the rodent's body. This technique is well validated and has excellent correlation with direct blood pressure.
The advantage of implantable radio telemetry is the ability to continuously portion rat and mouse blood pressure in free interesting laboratory animals.
The disadvantages of radiotelemetry are: (1) morbidity related with the initial surgical implantation of the transmitter; (2) morbidity related with surgical operation required to replace the battery, which has a short battery life; (3) increase in the animal's level of stress, especially mice, in connection to the large, heavy transmitters (2004, Atla, 4th World Congress, Einstein, Billing, Singh and Chin); (4) abnormal behavior since the animal cannot have collective interaction due to the current technology requiring the implanted animal to be isolated, one animal per cage; (5) inability to accomplish high throughput screening; (6) high cost of the initial equipment set-up and the high-priced transmitters that want frequent facility maintenance; (7) cost of material and human resources relating to ongoing surgeries; and (8) the lack of a contentious shop resulting in high product and servicing costs.
Non-Invasive Blood Pressure, Rat and Mouse Measurement
The Nibp methodology consists of utilizing a tail cuff located on the tail to occlude the blood flow. Upon deflation, one of some types of Nibp sensors, located distal to the occlusion cuff, can be utilized to monitor the rat Bp. There are three (3) types of Nibp sensor technologies: photoplethysmography, piezoplethysmography and Volume Pressure Recording. Each method will apply an occlusion tail-cuff as part of the procedure.
1. Photoplethysmography
The first and oldest sensor type is Photoplethysmography (Ppg), a light-based technology. The purpose is to description the first appearance of the pulse while deflating the occlusion cuff or the disappearance of pulses upon inflation of the occlusion cuff. Photoplethysmography utilizes an incandescent or Led light source to description the pulse signal wave. As such, this light-based plethysmographic method uses the light source to illuminate a small spot on the tail and attempts to description the pulse.
Photoplethysmography (Ppg) is relatively inaccurate since the readings are based solely on the amplitude of a singular pulse and can only imprecisely portion the systolic blood pressure and the heart beat. There are many limitations to a light-based technology, such as: (1) over-saturation of the Bp signal by ambient light; (2) extreme sensitivity to the rodent's movement (motion artifact); and (3) the difficulty in obtaining enough mice blood pressure signals in dark skinned rodents (Pigmentation Differentiation). Light-based sensors also cause tail burns from close palpate and prolonged exposure.
Diastolic blood pressure cannot be measured by photoplethysmography since the technology records only the first appearance of the pulse. If the diastolic Bp is displayed on the photoplethysmographic instrumentation, it is only an evaluation that is calculated by a software algorithm rather than a true measurement.
Additional variability and inaccuracy occurs in Ppg devices that rely on obtaining readings during occlusion cuff inflation.
Occlusion cuff length is also other source of variability and inaccuracy. Occlusion cuff length is inversely related to the accuracy of the blood pressure. Long cuffs, predominantly in most photoplethysmographic devices, description lower than the actual blood pressure measurements.
These limitations severely compromise the consistency, dependability and accuracy of the Nibp measurements obtained by devices that apply light-based/Led photoplethysmographic technology.
The photoplethysmography method correlates poorly with direct blood pressure measurements and is the least recommended sensor technology for Nibpe in rodents, especially mice.
2. Piezoplethysmography
The second Nibp sensor technology is piezoplethys-mography. Piezoplethysmography and photoplethysmography want the same first appearance of a pulse in the tail to description the systolic blood pressure and heart rate.
Both plethysmographic methods have similar clinical limitations. Whereas photoplethysmography uses a light source to exertion to description the pulse signal, piezoplethysmography utilizes piezoelectric ceramic crystals to do the same. From a technical point of view, piezoplethysmography is far more sensitive than photoplethysmography since the signal from the sensor is the rate of turn of the pulse rather than just the pulse amplitude. Therefore, even extremely small mice with high velocity pulses will originate a enough signal to be detected with uncomplicated amplifiers.
Piezoelectric sensors are more literal, than light-based/Led sensors but the same plethysmographic limitations continue to furnish inaccuracies in blood pressure measurements. On a inescapable note, the skin pigment of the rodent is not a estimation issue with piezoplethysmography as with photoplethysmography.
Although piezoplethysmography is great than photoplethysmography, both non-invasive tail-cuff blood pressure technologies assess poorly with direct blood pressure measurements.
3. Volume Pressure Recording
The third sensor technology is Volume Pressure Recording (Vpr). The Volume Pressure Recording sensor utilizes a specially designed differential pressure transducer to non-invasively portion the blood volume in the tail. Volume Pressure Recording will undoubtedly portion six (6) blood pressure parameters simultaneously: systolic, diastolic, mean, heart pulse rate, tail blood volume and tail blood flow.
Since Volume Pressure Recording utilizes a volumetric method to portion the blood flow and blood volume in the tail, there are no estimation artifacts related to ambient light; movement artifact is also greatly reduced. In addition, Volume Pressure Recording is not dependent on the animal's skin pigmentation. Dark-skinned animals have no negative corollary on Volume Pressure Recording measurements. Very small, 10-gram C57/Bl6 black mice are undoubtedly measured by the Volume Pressure Recording method.
Special attentiveness is afforded to the length of the occlusion cuff with Volume Pressure Recording in order to regain the most literal, blood pressure readings.
Volume Pressure Recording is the most reliable, consistent and literal, method to non-invasively portion the blood pressure in mice as small as 10 grams to rats greater than 950 grams.
In an independent clinical validation study conducted in 2003 at Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, Volume Pressure Recording correlated 99 percent with direct blood pressure:
"Volume Pressure Recording is excellent. It is very literal, and dependable. We performed experiments on temperature-controlled, adult rats and the non-invasive blood pressure measurements showed approximately excellent correlation with invasive blood pressure measurements. We are very pleased with the results."
Numerous published study papers are available validating the accuracy, reliability and consistency of Volume Pressure Recording. See the Clinical Bibliography section.
Rodent Holders, Rat and Mouse
The ideal animal possessor should conveniently restrain the animal, originate a low-stress environment and allow the researcher to permanently seek the animal's behavior. A trained rat or mouse can conveniently and quietly remain in the possessor for some hours.
It is very beneficial to integrate a darkened nose cone into the rodent possessor to limit the animal's view and cut the level of animal stress. The animal's nose will protrude through the front of the nose cone allowing for comfortable breathing. The tail of the animal should be fully extended and exit through the rear hatch opportunity of the holder.
The proper size animal possessor is significant for proper blood pressure measurements. If the possessor is too small for the animal, the dinky lateral space will not allow the animal to breathe in a relaxed fashion. The animal will compensate by elongating its body, thereby creating a breathing artifact. A breathing artifact will cause immoderate tail petition and undesirable blood pressure readings.
Animal Body Temperature, Rat and Mouse
A Nibp law should be designed to conveniently warm the animal, cut the animal's stress and heighten blood flow to the tail.
The rodent's core body climatic characteristic is very prominent for literal, and consistent blood pressure measurements. The animal must have enough blood flow in the tail to regain a blood pressure signal. Thermo-regulation is the method by which the animal reduces its core body temperature, dissipates heat through its tail and generates tail blood flow.
Anesthetized animals may have a lower body climatic characteristic than awake animals so further care must be administered to vocalize the animal's proper core body temperature. An infrared warming blanket or a re-circulating water pump with a warm water blanket is the favorite method to vocalize the animal's proper core body temperature. The animal should be warm and comfortable but never hot. extreme care must be exercised to never overheat the animal.
Warming devices such as hot air heating chambers, heat lamps or heating platforms that apply direct heat to the animal's feet are not advisable to vocalize the animal's core body temperature. These heating devices will overheat the animal and increase the animal's respiratory rate, thereby increasing the animal's stress level. These conditions will elicit poor thermo-regulatory responses and originate inconsistent and inaccurate blood pressure readings.
Environmental Temperature
The proper room climatic characteristic is significant for literal, blood pressure measurements. The room climatic characteristic should be at or above 26C. If the room climatic characteristic is too cool, such as below 22C, the animal will not thermo-regulate, tail blood flow will be reduced and it may be difficult to regain blood pressure signals. A cold steel table or a colse to air conditioning duct are undesirable during animal testing.
Animal Preparation
The animal should be located in the possessor at least 10 to 15 minutes prior to obtaining pressure measurements. Acclimated animals will provide faster Bp measurements than non-acclimated animals. proper animal handling is significant to consistent and literal, blood pressure measurements. A nervous, stressed animal may have diminished circulation in the tail.
Most rodents will speedily adapt to new conditions and feel comfortable in small, dark and confined spaces. Training is not significant to regain literal, blood pressure readings, however, some researchers prefer training sessions. Rodents can undoubtedly be trained in approximately three days, 15-minutes each day before starting your experiment.
The animal should be allowed to enter the possessor freely. After the animal is in the holder, adjust the nose cone so the animal is comfortable but not able to move excessively. The animal should never have its head bent sideways or its body compressed against the back hatch. The animal's climatic characteristic should be monitored throughout the experiment.
Conclusion
Tail-cuff Nibp measurements can be consistent, literal, and reproducible when studying awake and anesthetized mice and rats. In addition, manifold animal testing is very cost-effective for large scale, high throughput screening. Care must be exercised to properly handle the animals. Training the animals and monitoring the animal's climatic characteristic may also be beneficial.
The volumetric pressure recording method provides the top degree of correlation with telemetry and direct blood pressure and is clearly the favorite tail-cuff sensor technology.
Nibp devices that apply Volume Pressure Recording are a significant tool in study and will continue to be beneficial in many study protocols. The main advantages are: (1) they want no surgery; (2) they are significantly less high-priced than other blood pressure equipment, such as telemetry; (3) they can screen for systolic and diastolic Bp changes over time in large numbers of animals; and (4) they provide the researcher with the ability to regain literal, and consistent blood pressure measurements over time in long-term studies.